In 1914 Takao Ozawa applied for citizenship after living twenty years in the United States, where he completed his high school and college education in California before moving to Hawaiʻi, marrying, and starting a family. He petitioned for naturalization, a process for immigrants to apply for and to become citizens based on the years they have resided in a country. But Ozawa’s application was denied, and he spent the next eight years challenging the court system.

Ozawa wrote his own legal briefs where he often emphasized his “Americanness,” asserting he only spoke English in the household and had zero connection to Japan. “In name, General Benedict Arnold was an American, but at heart he was a traitor,” he reminded the court. “In name, I am not an American, but at heart I am a true American.” ¹

This module focuses on late nineteenth and early twentieth century restrictions on immigration and land ownership that targeted Asian groups, who were continually prohibited from naturalizing and accessing rights to housing and property. Systemic discrimination through municipal, state, and national laws affected the everyday lives of Asian communities, who additionally faced mob attacks and other forms of violence. Asian groups deployed several strategies to survive, including taking cases to court and circumventing restrictive policies through other tactics.